Historical Developments
In Camera Editing
Some of America’s
greatest filmmakers are known to use in camera editing, from Alfred Hitchcock to John Ford. For a variety of reasons, both of these
directors were so sure of their vision was correct, they wouldn't leave any
room for someone to re-edit their scenes. While they shot “out of
continuity”, they wouldn't provide any ”extra coverage” that could be used
for changing the context of the scene.
‘Rope’ which was made in 1948 was great technical challenge: a film that appears to have been
shot entirely in a single take. The film was actually shot in 10 takes ranging
from four and a half to 10 minutes each; 10 minutes being the maximum amount of
film that would fit in a single camera reel. Some transitions between reels
were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment.
Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the
camera in the same place.
Following the Action
When there is a big action
scene such as a car chase a camera on a tripod doesn't work so a camera needs
to be able to move. There is different equipment used to film scenes like
these. A dolly shot or tracking shot is when a cart is on a track and is
then moved along it to record a shot. The camera is mounted on the cart to film
all the footage. Most dollies also have have the ability to move vertically to
capture footage that maybe high up or in some cases they can be fitted with
cranes so footage at a higher level can be captured easily and successfully.
Multiple Points of View
The film Life of an American Fireman in 1903 shows the events of a fireman rescuing a women from a burning building. The film is first viewed by the audience from inside the building and then a shot shown from outside the building which repeats the action in the narrative. This editing technique of using different points of view of the action demonstrated its own laws of time and space on narrative.
Shot Variation is when a single stream of images are uninterrupted by editing where the shot can use a static or a mobile framing, a standard or a non-standard frame rate, but it must be a continuous motion. The shot is one of the basic units of cinema yet has always been subject to manipulation, for example stop-motion cinematography or superimposition. In contemporary cinema, with the use of computer graphics and sequences built-up from a series of still frames
Manipulation of Diegetic Time and Space
Manipulation of Diegetic Time and Space is when a film uses effects an age or time change. Either a person to an object or even an environment is shown either getting younger or getting older. There are many films which uses this technique but a famous film is the time machine as the man is in the time machine and the environment changes as he is travelling through time. An example of this would be ‘The Karate Kid’. Through the time he learns to train, it speeds up to make it last about 15 minutes, when it would have lasted days or even weeks. It lets the audience know it’s been a long period of time.A Brief History
As with most other film techniques, editing has evolved over time as the technology and audience expectations change. Like almost every basic idea about movies, the idea of editing has its risks. Flashbacks had existed only in novels; scene changes were already part of live theater. But the very earliest filmmakers were afraid to edit film shots together because they assumed that splicing together different shots of different things from different positions would simply confuse audiences.Developments in Technology
Film Editing
Scissors and the Moviola
The first tools used in the cutting room consisted of nothing more than scissors and glue. As you might imagine, this was tedious work that required an editor to hold strips of film up to the light and squint at tiny frames all day (sometimes aided by a magnifying glass). In this painstaking way, they would determine where to snip away at their cut points.
The first tools used in the cutting room consisted of nothing more than scissors and glue. As you might imagine, this was tedious work that required an editor to hold strips of film up to the light and squint at tiny frames all day (sometimes aided by a magnifying glass). In this painstaking way, they would determine where to snip away at their cut points.
The Flatbeds
In the 1930's Wilhem Steenbeck created the popular flatbed editor that made his famous. The Steenbeck featured a large, flat table-like surface where editors could lay down their reels horizontally on separate plates and thread them through its mechanical guides and sprockets. Eventually, many came to consider the flatbed superior to the upright Moviola film-editing machines in terms of speed, sound quality and monitoring.
CMX 600
The first digital nonlinear editing system was introduced by CMX systems in 1971. Called the CMX 600, it used mainframe computers and was only capable of storing about half an hour of video on bulky Disk Pack drives, which themselves were the size of washing machines
Nonlinear Editing
In the 1980's, companies such as LucasFilm, Laser Edit and EditFlex built systems that allowed nonlinear editing by using banks of laser discs or VCRs. However, all of them were clumsy, sluggish and placed too much of a burden on the computers of their day.
Premiere Pro
Premiere Pro has recently emerged as a very attractive platform and a serious contender to become the preferred platform for many editors. It has the ability to handle many different flavors of digital video formats allowing you to do whatever you wish with them.
Slice and Splice
CMX 600
The first digital nonlinear editing system was introduced by CMX systems in 1971. Called the CMX 600, it used mainframe computers and was only capable of storing about half an hour of video on bulky Disk Pack drives, which themselves were the size of washing machines
Nonlinear Editing
In the 1980's, companies such as LucasFilm, Laser Edit and EditFlex built systems that allowed nonlinear editing by using banks of laser discs or VCRs. However, all of them were clumsy, sluggish and placed too much of a burden on the computers of their day.
Premiere Pro
Premiere Pro has recently emerged as a very attractive platform and a serious contender to become the preferred platform for many editors. It has the ability to handle many different flavors of digital video formats allowing you to do whatever you wish with them.
Video Editing
Slice and Splice
In the late 1950's the only way to edit video tape was to physically slice the tape. To do this a machine was designed in 1958 which was in the shape of a block. It consisted of a small blade across a guide and a microscope for viewing the exact place to cut.
Electronic Editing
In the 1960's the first electronic editing device appeared on the market. It allowed shots and scenes to be put together without physically cutting the tape. It required editors to play back the tape on a VTR and record the desired sequence on a second VTR. This way the tapes could be put together without distortion or 'break ups' at the edit points.
Analogue editing was around before it all changed into digital editing. Before computers were created they used analogue editing which was all done by hand, nothing was done by using software. You had a copy of the positive film where all the footage went onto when it was filmed. They then took the film and cut it in different parts using a splicer and pasted it onto different pieces of film to create the cutaways. With analogue editing it then had to be fed through a machine, this shows how much the editing techniques has changed over the years how now it can all be done on a computer and no messing around is needed.
Porter entered the world of film in 1896 where the first films were projected onto large screens in the United States. He was employed in New York by Raff & Gammon agents for the films and viewing equipment made by Thomas Edison. Porter left that job to become a touring projectionist with a competing machine Kuhn & Webster's Projector scope. He traveled through the West Indies and South America showing films at fairgrounds and fields. He then took a second tour through Canada and the United States before returning to New York working as a projectionist. In 1899 Porter joined The Edison Manufacturing Company he then took charge of motion picture production at Edisons New York Studios by operating the cameras and directing the actors. Porter became one of the most influential film makers in the United States and with his knowledge from his projection tours he knew how to please the crowd. He then started to make comedies for Edison. His early films were Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King made in February 1901, Jack and the Beanstalk (1902) and Life of an American Fireman (1903). Instead of using cuts between shots Porter created dissolves and gradual transitions from one cut to another. The Great Train Robbery became one of Porters best film. The twelve minute long film was shot on one reel and was assembled with 20 different shots and a close up of a bandit firing a shot at the camera which had never been seen before. It used around ten different indoor and outdoor locations and gave an introduction to the cross-cutting technique to show simultaneous action in different places.
D.W. Griffith
D.W. Griffith: In 1907 Griffith went to New York in attempt to sell a script to Edison Studios producer Edwin S. Porter, his scrip got rejected but instead was offered an acting role in Rescued from an Eagles Nest. Griffith accepted an acting job for the American Mutoscope and Biography Company and due to illnesses within the company he became the main director for American Mutoscope and Biography Company, Griffith then made his first film for the company 'The Adventures of Dollie'. Biograph was the first company to shoot a film in Hollywood, California, the film 'In Old California' (1910), he also produced and directed the Biograph film 'Judith of Bethulia' (1914), one of the earliest feature films to be produced in the United States. After moving to Reliance-Majestic Studios Griffith he produced the film 'The Clansman' (1915), which would later be known as 'The Birth of a Nation.' It became the first Blockbuster and is considered as one of the first feature length American films. It was incredibly popular breaking box office records but also raised a lot of controversy about what was mention about slavery in the Civil War, some audiences that saw the film responded with rioting over the film's racial content.
The video below sets a great example of what storytelling through editing is about. The film editing reveals a long period of time has passed by screening that 'Rocky' has been doing his his training. The editor could have easily just used the editing technique of manuscript where the editor could have just put ’a few months later'. Editing is used for many different things, one of the purposes is storytelling. A good edit means a good piece of footage. Any sequence needs to be able to tell a story to enable the audience to be engaged and entertained. The viewer needs to be drawn into the story and to do that it needs to be told well. the first step of this is editing.
Developments of Drama
Editing is used to develop drama, the way footage is edited can determine the intensity of the clip. Putting certain clips together and using different camera shots at certain points can benefit a video and develop drama. In this case combining multiple clips together or repeating clips in 'Rocky' has benefited it massively as it improves strength and builds a relationship with the actor/film.
Different genres of film have different conventions when it comes to editing, different techniques and styles are used to illustrate the genre.
- In an action films there is a lot of fast editing, this is to show the fast pace of the movie, in most action films there is a car chase or a fight scene, so fast editing is frequently used. Long shots are also used to establish the scene.
Creating Motivation
The motivated editing technique is a simple way to transition from one shot, to the next shot. Making a natural looking shot can be tricky, the best way to make an edit look good is to make a motivated edit because it is not jumpy and will not effect the audience and how it is viewed. For example the clip below from the film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows part 2 shows characters all concentrating on Harry Potter which persuades the audience to feel scared and anxious for the safety of Harry Potter.
Creating Pace
Creating pace is when editing is used to speed up or slow down a film. The pace of an edit can alter the way the audiences views the film. For example action films are usually fast paced, this is done editing shots so they are short and then quickly cut to another shot. Drama films normally use slower shots, this is to allow the audience to see and understand a scene, and to understand the character. this is done by having longer shots in a scene.
Combining Shots into Sequences
Combining shots into sequences is the process of putting together all shots and making them flow. Once all of the shots have been individually edited they can they be place together in a sequence a successful edit mean the sequence will look good, the edit needs to look invisible and so the audience can only see one long sequence.
Parallel Editing
Parallel editing is a technique used to portray multiple lines of action occurring in different places simultaneously. These different sequences of shots are shown simultaneously because there is usually some type of connection between them. Parallel editing is usually used to create suspense to a situation as the audience can see two similar situations occurring at the same time. It can also work with the use of sound, an example of parallel editing in is the film 'Silence of the Lambs' below.
Jump Cutting
Jump cuts are an example of the elliptical style of editing where one shot seems to be interrupted. Typically the background will change while the individual stays the same or vice a versa. Jump cuts stray away from the more contemporary style of continuity editing. This technique can be seen in the fim 'Breathless'.
Transitions
Dissolve is the gradual transitions between shots. It involves fading out one shot whilst fading up another on top of it so they merge. Defocus or ripple dissolves are sometimes used to indicate flashbacks in time.
Wipe is a transition between two shots. It appears to replace an image by wiping it off the screen either as a line or in a pattern, or by appearing to turn a page. The wipe is a technique which acts as a clear marker of change.
Split screen is the division of the screen into parts which can show the viewer several shots at the same time or sometimes the same footage from an alternative angle. This can show the excitement of some activities and keep the viewer engaged in what is going on.
180° Rule
The 180 Degree Rule states that two characters in a scene should always have the same left/right relationship to each other. If you don't follow the 180 Degree Rule, or break it intentionally, it disrupts the scene and disorients the audience. When you break the 180 degree line, a person who was originally facing left in a scene is all of the sudden facing right.
Director Alfred Hitchcock once explained the power of a cutaway shot by describing a scene between two actors. If the two actors are shown having a normal conversation at a table and then a bomb explodes, the audience receives a ten second shock. If the camera cuts away to the bomb beneath the table first, however, the entire scene becomes much more suspenseful, since the audience is now aware of the impending explosion. This is one reason why many film and television directors use cutaway shots to aid the storytelling process.
POV Shot
A Point Of View shot is a simple shot of what the character (or object) sees. We as the audience get a glimpse of what the character is looking at. The POV shot falls under the family of Reverse Cuts and is a great tool to engage the audience to see from the character’s eyes. If you show a character reacting to seeing something off-screen, you know that the next shot has to be a POV. A great way to build suspense and increase the intensity of the situation is to hold on the person reacting. Get him/her to react more before you cut to the next shot
Electronic Editing
Analogue Editing
Analogue editing was around before it all changed into digital editing. Before computers were created they used analogue editing which was all done by hand, nothing was done by using software. You had a copy of the positive film where all the footage went onto when it was filmed. They then took the film and cut it in different parts using a splicer and pasted it onto different pieces of film to create the cutaways. With analogue editing it then had to be fed through a machine, this shows how much the editing techniques has changed over the years how now it can all be done on a computer and no messing around is needed.
Important People
Edwin S. Porter
Porter entered the world of film in 1896 where the first films were projected onto large screens in the United States. He was employed in New York by Raff & Gammon agents for the films and viewing equipment made by Thomas Edison. Porter left that job to become a touring projectionist with a competing machine Kuhn & Webster's Projector scope. He traveled through the West Indies and South America showing films at fairgrounds and fields. He then took a second tour through Canada and the United States before returning to New York working as a projectionist. In 1899 Porter joined The Edison Manufacturing Company he then took charge of motion picture production at Edisons New York Studios by operating the cameras and directing the actors. Porter became one of the most influential film makers in the United States and with his knowledge from his projection tours he knew how to please the crowd. He then started to make comedies for Edison. His early films were Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King made in February 1901, Jack and the Beanstalk (1902) and Life of an American Fireman (1903). Instead of using cuts between shots Porter created dissolves and gradual transitions from one cut to another. The Great Train Robbery became one of Porters best film. The twelve minute long film was shot on one reel and was assembled with 20 different shots and a close up of a bandit firing a shot at the camera which had never been seen before. It used around ten different indoor and outdoor locations and gave an introduction to the cross-cutting technique to show simultaneous action in different places.D.W. Griffith
D.W. Griffith: In 1907 Griffith went to New York in attempt to sell a script to Edison Studios producer Edwin S. Porter, his scrip got rejected but instead was offered an acting role in Rescued from an Eagles Nest. Griffith accepted an acting job for the American Mutoscope and Biography Company and due to illnesses within the company he became the main director for American Mutoscope and Biography Company, Griffith then made his first film for the company 'The Adventures of Dollie'. Biograph was the first company to shoot a film in Hollywood, California, the film 'In Old California' (1910), he also produced and directed the Biograph film 'Judith of Bethulia' (1914), one of the earliest feature films to be produced in the United States. After moving to Reliance-Majestic Studios Griffith he produced the film 'The Clansman' (1915), which would later be known as 'The Birth of a Nation.' It became the first Blockbuster and is considered as one of the first feature length American films. It was incredibly popular breaking box office records but also raised a lot of controversy about what was mention about slavery in the Civil War, some audiences that saw the film responded with rioting over the film's racial content.
The Purposes of Editing
StorytellingThe video below sets a great example of what storytelling through editing is about. The film editing reveals a long period of time has passed by screening that 'Rocky' has been doing his his training. The editor could have easily just used the editing technique of manuscript where the editor could have just put ’a few months later'. Editing is used for many different things, one of the purposes is storytelling. A good edit means a good piece of footage. Any sequence needs to be able to tell a story to enable the audience to be engaged and entertained. The viewer needs to be drawn into the story and to do that it needs to be told well. the first step of this is editing.
Developments of Drama
Different genres of film have different conventions when it comes to editing, different techniques and styles are used to illustrate the genre.
- In an action films there is a lot of fast editing, this is to show the fast pace of the movie, in most action films there is a car chase or a fight scene, so fast editing is frequently used. Long shots are also used to establish the scene.
- In Horror films fast editing is also used, this is to scare viewers. The audience are anxious as they do not know what is coming next and are waiting to be scared by the next quick shot. Low shots are also used to create fear, it shows the characters intimidation and authority over the other characters.
- In a 'rom-com' the editing makes the audience know its a romantic comedy, the sound is always upbeat and happy, the editing is always at a slower pace but almost always cheerful.
Creating Motivation
The motivated editing technique is a simple way to transition from one shot, to the next shot. Making a natural looking shot can be tricky, the best way to make an edit look good is to make a motivated edit because it is not jumpy and will not effect the audience and how it is viewed. For example the clip below from the film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows part 2 shows characters all concentrating on Harry Potter which persuades the audience to feel scared and anxious for the safety of Harry Potter.
Creating Pace
Creating pace is when editing is used to speed up or slow down a film. The pace of an edit can alter the way the audiences views the film. For example action films are usually fast paced, this is done editing shots so they are short and then quickly cut to another shot. Drama films normally use slower shots, this is to allow the audience to see and understand a scene, and to understand the character. this is done by having longer shots in a scene.
Combining Shots into Sequences
Combining shots into sequences is the process of putting together all shots and making them flow. Once all of the shots have been individually edited they can they be place together in a sequence a successful edit mean the sequence will look good, the edit needs to look invisible and so the audience can only see one long sequence.
The Principles of Editing
Editing Rhythm
Rhythm editing describes the assembling of shots and/or sequences according to a rhythm pattern of some kind and is usually dictated by music. Dialogue may be involved but it's the music that is the main focus. Rhythmic factors include beat, accent, and tempo and are one of the essential features of a film as it contributes to its mood and overall impression on the audience.
Shot Reverse Shot
A shot reverse shot is an editing technique where multiple shots are edited together in a way that alternates characters typically to show both sides of a conversation. There are many way this can be accomplished with the most common being over the shoulder, angled shots, left/right alternating shots, and often all three used together. In Terry Zwigoff's 'Bad Santa' over the shoulder shots are used, this combined with eye-line matches shows the how focused the characters are on each other. The over the shoulder technique lets the audience see each characters facial expression while listening or speaking. This technique also creates a sense of space between the characters which stops the frame seem cramped.
Parallel editing is a technique used to portray multiple lines of action occurring in different places simultaneously. These different sequences of shots are shown simultaneously because there is usually some type of connection between them. Parallel editing is usually used to create suspense to a situation as the audience can see two similar situations occurring at the same time. It can also work with the use of sound, an example of parallel editing in is the film 'Silence of the Lambs' below.
Jump Cutting
Jump cuts are an example of the elliptical style of editing where one shot seems to be interrupted. Typically the background will change while the individual stays the same or vice a versa. Jump cuts stray away from the more contemporary style of continuity editing. This technique can be seen in the fim 'Breathless'.
Transitions
Dissolve is the gradual transitions between shots. It involves fading out one shot whilst fading up another on top of it so they merge. Defocus or ripple dissolves are sometimes used to indicate flashbacks in time.
Wipe is a transition between two shots. It appears to replace an image by wiping it off the screen either as a line or in a pattern, or by appearing to turn a page. The wipe is a technique which acts as a clear marker of change.
Split screen is the division of the screen into parts which can show the viewer several shots at the same time or sometimes the same footage from an alternative angle. This can show the excitement of some activities and keep the viewer engaged in what is going on.
180° Rule
The 180 Degree Rule states that two characters in a scene should always have the same left/right relationship to each other. If you don't follow the 180 Degree Rule, or break it intentionally, it disrupts the scene and disorients the audience. When you break the 180 degree line, a person who was originally facing left in a scene is all of the sudden facing right.
Cutaways
A cutaway shot usually cuts away from the main action for a short time. A cutaway shot is not necessarily the same as a flashback or flash forward, in which the timeline of the film is moved backwards or forwards. A typical cutaway shot usually takes place at the same time as the main action sequence, showing the audience other plot points occurring at the same time.
Director Alfred Hitchcock once explained the power of a cutaway shot by describing a scene between two actors. If the two actors are shown having a normal conversation at a table and then a bomb explodes, the audience receives a ten second shock. If the camera cuts away to the bomb beneath the table first, however, the entire scene becomes much more suspenseful, since the audience is now aware of the impending explosion. This is one reason why many film and television directors use cutaway shots to aid the storytelling process.
POV Shot
A Point Of View shot is a simple shot of what the character (or object) sees. We as the audience get a glimpse of what the character is looking at. The POV shot falls under the family of Reverse Cuts and is a great tool to engage the audience to see from the character’s eyes. If you show a character reacting to seeing something off-screen, you know that the next shot has to be a POV. A great way to build suspense and increase the intensity of the situation is to hold on the person reacting. Get him/her to react more before you cut to the next shot
Montage
Montage is the process that an editor takes two pieces of film of tape and combines them to emphasize their meaning. It is a method that through two unrelated shots we may create a third and different meaning.
Continuity
This is the way almost all film and television programmes are edited together. The best continuity editing is the kind you can't even notice. The core of this style is the careful timing and use of cuts and other transitional effects. Deciding when to switch from one shot to the next can be crucial, as a mistimed cut will be very noticeable to the viewer. The defining characteristic of Montages is that they don't follow the rules of continuity editing.
Motivated Edits
Any edit breaks the illusion of continuity. When there is a reason for a different shot, a motivated cut is the least disruptive. When an actor looks to one side in a dramatic scene, we can cut easily to whatever the actor is supposed to be seeing. When someone is talking about something, viewers expect to see it.
Continuity
This is the way almost all film and television programmes are edited together. The best continuity editing is the kind you can't even notice. The core of this style is the careful timing and use of cuts and other transitional effects. Deciding when to switch from one shot to the next can be crucial, as a mistimed cut will be very noticeable to the viewer. The defining characteristic of Montages is that they don't follow the rules of continuity editing.
Motivated Edits
Any edit breaks the illusion of continuity. When there is a reason for a different shot, a motivated cut is the least disruptive. When an actor looks to one side in a dramatic scene, we can cut easily to whatever the actor is supposed to be seeing. When someone is talking about something, viewers expect to see it.
Cutting to Soundtrack
Cutting to soundtrack is when the pace of the cuts are motivated by how fast the song is . When an editor is editing with soundtrack the sound will be the guide. A good example of this is in music videos. As you see this music video is fast because the soundtrack has a fast drum beat so the editor is using the drum beat as a guide for him so he knows how long to have each shot before the next.
Providing and Withholding Information
Providing and withholding information is a big part of cinema because as a viewer we don't want to be told the plot from the beginning and this is why dramatic questions are very important in film making. Providing information for the viewer is essential in the sense that putting a few shots together that will reveal the minimum will engage the viewer but the best way to keep a viewer guessing and more hooked on your feature would be by withholding information because then as a viewer they will be asking questions to try and justify the actions they've just witnessed.
